A Comprehensive Guide to Research Methods in Applied Linguistics by Farhady
Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: A Comprehensive Guide
Applied linguistics is a broad and interdisciplinary field that studies language use in real-world contexts. It covers topics such as language teaching and learning, language assessment, language policy, language planning, language and communication disorders, language and technology, language and culture, language and identity, language and cognition, language and social interaction, and many more. Applied linguistics aims to solve practical problems related to language use, as well as to advance theoretical knowledge about language.
Research Methods In Applied Linguistics Farhady.pdf
Research methods are systematic ways of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. Research methods help us to produce reliable and valid evidence that can support or challenge our claims about language use. Research methods also help us to communicate our findings to other researchers and stakeholders in a clear and transparent way.
There are many different types of research methods in applied linguistics, depending on the nature of the research problem, the purpose of the research, the availability of data, the resources and skills of the researcher, and the preferences of the audience. In this article, we will provide a comprehensive guide to three main types of research methods in applied linguistics: quantitative methods, qualitative methods, and mixed methods. We will explain what each type of method is, what its advantages and limitations are, what steps it involves, and what examples it has. We will also discuss some of the main challenges and opportunities for applied linguistics research in the 21st century.
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods are research methods that use numerical data to measure or describe phenomena. Quantitative methods often involve testing hypotheses using statistical techniques to determine whether there is a significant relationship or difference between variables. Quantitative methods can also be used to describe patterns or trends in large-scale data sets using descriptive statistics or graphical displays.
Some of the advantages of quantitative methods are that they can provide objective and precise measurements of phenomena, they can allow for generalization and comparison across contexts or groups, they can test causal claims or predictions, and they can handle large amounts of data efficiently. Some of the limitations of quantitative methods are that they can oversimplify complex phenomena, they can ignore contextual or individual factors, they can be influenced by measurement errors or biases, and they can require specialized knowledge and skills to conduct and interpret.
The main steps of conducting quantitative research in applied linguistics are:
Identify a research problem or question that can be answered using numerical data.
Review the literature to find out what previous studies have done and what gaps or controversies exist.
Formulate a hypothesis or a research question that specifies the expected relationship or difference between variables.
Choose a research design that suits the purpose and scope of the research, such as experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, or descriptive.
Select a sample of participants or units of analysis that represents the population of interest, using probability or non-probability sampling techniques.
Develop or select instruments or tools for data collection, such as surveys, questionnaires, tests, scales, or software.
Collect data following ethical principles and procedures, such as obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and minimizing harm.
Analyze data using appropriate statistical methods, such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, or multivariate analysis.
Interpret and report the results in relation to the hypothesis or research question, the literature review, and the implications for theory and practice.
Some examples of quantitative research methods in applied linguistics are:
Surveys and questionnaires
Surveys and questionnaires are instruments that collect numerical data from a large number of respondents using closed-ended questions or items. Surveys and questionnaires can be used to measure attitudes, beliefs, opinions, preferences, behaviors, or characteristics of individuals or groups. Surveys and questionnaires can be administered online, by mail, by phone, or in person. Surveys and questionnaires can be used to describe the distribution or frequency of phenomena, to compare groups or conditions, or to examine relationships between variables.
An example of a survey in applied linguistics is the Survey of English Usage (SEU), which is a large-scale project that collects data on how people use English in different contexts and registers. The SEU uses various methods to collect data, such as interviews, recordings, diaries, questionnaires, and corpora. The SEU analyzes the data using descriptive and inferential statistics to describe patterns and trends in English usage and to test hypotheses about linguistic variation and change.
Experiments and quasi-experiments
Experiments and quasi-experiments are research designs that test causal claims or predictions by manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effects on one or more dependent variables. Experiments and quasi-experiments control for extraneous variables that might affect the outcome by using random assignment, pretest-posttest measures, control groups, or counterbalancing. Experiments and quasi-experiments can be conducted in laboratory settings or in natural settings.
An example of an experiment in applied linguistics is a study by Ellis et al. (2009), which investigated the effects of explicit and implicit corrective feedback on second language acquisition. The study randomly assigned learners of English as a second language to three groups: explicit feedback group, implicit feedback group, and control group. The study measured the learners' performance on a grammaticality judgment test before and after receiving feedback on their oral production. The study used inferential statistics to compare the mean scores of the three groups and to test whether feedback had a significant effect on grammatical accuracy.
Corpus analysis and computational linguistics
Corpus analysis and computational linguistics are research methods that use computer software or tools to collect, process, analyze, or generate large amounts of linguistic data. Corpus analysis involves using corpora (collections of texts) to study linguistic features or patterns in natural language use. Computational linguistics involves using algorithms or models to perform linguistic tasks or solve linguistic problems. Corpus analysis and computational linguistics can be used to describe linguistic phenomena quantitatively or qualitatively, to compare linguistic varieties or genres, to test linguistic hypotheses or theories, or to develop linguistic applications or systems.
distinguish different registers or genres of English. The study used factor analysis to identify six dimensions of variation based on 67 linguistic features, such as tense and aspect markers, pronouns, prepositions, passive constructions, etc. The study then used cluster analysis to group the texts into four main register categories: informational written prose, involved spoken conversation, narrative prose, and argumentative prose.
Qualitative Methods
Qualitative methods are research methods that use non-numerical data to explore or describe phenomena. Qualitative methods often involve interpreting data using thematic or content analysis to identify patterns or meanings in the data. Qualitative methods can also be used to generate data using creative or expressive techniques such as narratives or metaphors.
Some of the advantages of qualitative methods are that they can provide rich and detailed descriptions of phenomena, they can capture contextual or individual factors, they can explore new or complex phenomena, and they can be flexible and adaptable to the research situation. Some of the limitations of qualitative methods are that they can be subjective and biased, they can be difficult to generalize or compare across contexts or groups, they can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, and they can require advanced skills and sensitivity to conduct and interpret.
The main steps of conducting qualitative research in applied linguistics are:
Identify a research problem or question that can be answered using non-numerical data.
Review the literature to find out what previous studies have done and what gaps or controversies exist.
Formulate a research question or a research aim that specifies the focus or purpose of the research.
Choose a research design that suits the nature and scope of the research, such as case study, action research, ethnography, or discourse analysis.
Select a sample of participants or units of analysis that are relevant and accessible for the research, using purposive or convenience sampling techniques.
Develop or select instruments or tools for data collection, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, documents, recordings, or software.
Collect data following ethical principles and procedures, such as obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and minimizing harm.
Analyze data using appropriate methods, such as thematic analysis, content analysis, discourse analysis, narrative analysis, or grounded theory.
Interpret and report the findings in relation to the research question or aim, the literature review, and the implications for theory and practice.
Some examples of qualitative research methods in applied linguistics are:
Interviews and focus groups
Interviews and focus groups are instruments that collect non-numerical data from one or more respondents using open-ended questions or prompts. Interviews and focus groups can be used to elicit opinions, beliefs, experiences, stories, or perspectives of individuals or groups. Interviews and focus groups can be conducted face-to-face, by phone, by video call, or online. Interviews and focus groups can be structured (following a predetermined set of questions), semi-structured (following a flexible guide of topics), or unstructured (following a spontaneous flow of conversation).
An example of an interview in applied linguistics is a study by Norton (2000), which investigated the identity and language learning of immigrant women in Canada. The study conducted semi-structured interviews with five women from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds over a period of two years. The study analyzed the interviews using thematic analysis to identify how the women constructed their identities in relation to their language learning experiences and social contexts.
Observations and ethnography
inferential statistics, thematic analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis.
Integrate and interpret the results from both quantitative and qualitative data, using techniques such as data transformation, data comparison, data integration, or data synthesis.
Some examples of mixed methods research in applied linguistics are:
Sequential designs
Sequential designs are mixed methods designs where one method follows another in a chronological order. Sequential designs can be used to explore or explain the results from one method using another method, to develop or test an instrument or a theory using another method, or to follow up or extend the findings from one method using another method.
An example of a sequential design in applied linguistics is a study by Dörnyei et al. (2006), which investigated the motivational basis of language learning tasks. The study used an exploratory sequential design, where qualitative data were collected and analyzed first, followed by quantitative data. The study conducted focus group interviews with learners and teachers of English as a foreign language to identify the motivational components of language learning tasks. The study then developed a questionnaire based on the qualitative findings and administered it to a large sample of learners to measure their task motivation. The study used factor analysis and structural equation modeling to test a theoretical model of task motivation.
Concurrent designs
Concurrent designs are mixed methods designs where both methods are conducted simultaneously or independently. Concurrent designs can be used to compare or contrast the results from both methods, to complement or enhance the results from one method with another method, or to triangulate or corroborate the results from both methods.
An example of a concurrent design in applied linguistics is a study by Taguchi et al. (2009), which investigated the development of pragmatic competence in learners of English as a second language. The study used a convergent parallel design, where quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed separately and then compared and integrated. The study administered a discourse completion test and a multiple-choice test to measure the learners' pragmatic knowledge and performance at different proficiency levels. The study also conducted stimulated recall interviews with a subset of learners to elicit their metapragmatic awareness and strategies. The study used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the test data and thematic analysis to analyze the interview data.
Transformative designs
Transformative designs are mixed methods designs where one method is guided by a theoretical framework that addresses issues of social justice, power, or change. Transformative designs can be used to advocate for marginalized or oppressed groups, to challenge dominant or oppressive discourses or practices, or to promote social action or change.
An example of a transformative design in applied linguistics is a study by Menard-Warwick (2009), which investigated the language learning experiences and identities of immigrant women in the USA. The study used a feminist participatory action research design, where qualitative data were collected and analyzed collaboratively with the participants. The study conducted life history interviews and classroom observations with six women from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds who were enrolled in an adult ESL program. The study also facilitated group discussions and workshops with the participants to reflect on their language learning stories and to develop their agency and empowerment. The study used narrative analysis and discourse analysis to examine how the women constructed their identities and negotiated their roles in relation to their language learning contexts.
Conclusion
In this article, we have provided a comprehensive guide to three main types of research methods in applied linguistics: quantitative methods, qualitative methods, and mixed methods. We have explained what each type of method is, what its advantages and limitations are, what steps it involves, and what examples it has. We hope that this article will help applied linguistics researchers to choose and use appropriate research methods for their studies.
However, we also acknowledge that research methods are not fixed or static entities that can be easily categorized or prescribed. Rather, research methods are dynamic and evolving practices that reflect the creativity and diversity of applied linguistics research. Therefore, we encourage applied linguistics researchers to be flexible and innovative in their use of research methods, to adapt them to their specific research contexts and purposes, and to integrate them with other methods or approaches as needed.
Some tips and resources for applied linguistics researchers who want to learn more about research methods are:
Read widely and critically about research methods from different sources and perspectives, such as books, journals, websites, blogs, podcasts, or webinars.
Consult with experts or mentors who have experience or expertise in using research methods, such as supervisors, colleagues, peers, or consultants.
Participate in training or workshops that offer opportunities to learn or practice research methods, such as courses, seminars, conferences, or online platforms.
Engage in self-reflection or peer feedback on your use of research methods, such as journals, portfolios, discussions, or reviews.
Contribute to the development and dissemination of research methods in applied linguistics, such as publications, presentations, collaborations, or networks.
FAQs
Here are some frequently asked questions about research methods in applied linguistics:
What is the difference between applied linguistics and general linguistics?
Applied linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language use in real-world contexts and aims to solve practical problems related to language use. General linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language as a system and aims to describe and explain the structure and function of language.
How do I choose the best research method for my applied linguistics project?
There is no single best research method for any applied linguistics project. The choice of research method depends on various factors, such as the research problem or question, the purpose and scope of the research, the availability and quality of data, the resources and skills of the researcher, and the preferences and expectations of the audience. You should consider these factors carefully and select a research method that suits your specific research context and purpose.
How do I write a research proposal or report for applied linguistics research?
A research proposal or report for applied linguistics research should follow a clear and coherent structure that communicates the main aspects of your research. A common structure for a research proposal or report is:
Introduction: Provide the background and rationale for your research, state your research problem or question, and outline your research objectives or aims.
Literature review: Review the relevant literature on your research topic and identify the gaps or controversies that your research will address.
Methodology: Describe and justify your choice of research method, design, sample, instruments, data collection, and data analysis.
graphs, charts, or other visual aids.
Discussion: Interpret and discuss your results in relation to your research problem or question, literature review, and research objectives or aims.
Conclusion: Summarize the main points and implications of your research, state the limitations and recommendations for future research, and provide a clear and concise answer to your research problem or question.
References: List all the sources that you have cited or consulted in your research using a consistent and appropriate citation style.
Appendices: Include any additional or supplementary information that supports your research, such as data sets, instruments, consent forms, or transcripts.
How do I deal with ethical issues in applied linguistics research?
Ethical issues are issues that involve moral principles or values that guide or regulate the conduct of research.